History Essay Example | Topics and Well Written Essays - 500 words - 98

History - Essay Example The fifteenth century financial crisis also meant a stop to financing to the influential and controlling marabouts and Sharifian families (Tignor, Adelman, Aron, Kotkin, and Marchand). The Islamic dynasties of the fifteenth century responded through the disruption of trade networks in the quest to rebuild devastated polities. The new polities enjoyed support because of the establishment of hereditary ruling families. Clear rules of succession promoted stability in the regions and enabled dynasties to form alliances and strengthen their armies. The Islamic dynasties of the sixteenth century focused on state-building efforts through religion and taxes. In consequence, they enjoyed substantial prolonged existence and impact on the masses. New administrative practices were common in their responses. The leaders enhanced local religious and cultural traditions, and religious harmony enhanced the much-needed economic progress. The Mali, Baghdad, and Cairo Muslim societies served as commercial trading centers. In Mali, the indigenous African dynasty adopted Islam through nonviolent means, while India was marred with brutal attacks against Hindu and Buddhist temples. In India, the Islamic society took some time before it stabilized and enjoyed peace because it relied on fear to keep subjects subservient. India was split into Muslim and Hindu territories while Africans in Mali largely accepted Islam. The Muslim societies that emerged in Mali prospered because of the vastness of the region. The traditional Muslim societies in Baghdad and Cairo faced political divisions because of religious differences. In Cairo, different social groups applied Islam differently because it was seen as a complex and diverse religion. Even so, they all agreed on the basic tenets of the religion. The early forms of Muslim cultures were guided by Arab influences, and most of the tenets were adopted from the behaviors

Reporting on a Religious Service Essay Example | Topics and Well Written Essays - 1250 words

Reporting on a Religious Service - Essay Example The outside pictures were a distinct depiction of a religious place that was encompassed in its architecture. The temple was fenced all round by metallic rails that demarcated the place from its neighborhoods. The temple had a dome that was indicative of the Shikar-bandhi type of the Jain temples. The temple was beautifully carved with pillars all over the entrance, and the inside of the temple was enclosed. The colors that were used on the outside included white with blue-print of the Jain signs and symbols. From the front, there was only one entrance to access the building with a dome on top of the entrance. The inside was also decorated with a combination of architecture, paintings, and colors that were similar to those that were outside. On my entry into the building, I took off my shoes because every other believer was taking off their shoes, and it was a sign of etiquette. The inside had two staircases. The downstairs was composed of many rooms that were meant for education and other programs in the temple. The upstairs was the main temple of the believers. The upstairs was an empty hall that had no furniture. However, the floor was covered with a mat. Inside this temple, there were idols that were decorated differently. The middle idol was the most decorated while the three on each of the sides were less decorated. The believers were seated on these mats with their legs folded and their hands laying on their laps. Most people in this service were middle class and the high class. Their ethnic group was mainly Indian, and their gender was composed of both males and females. Their age s were varied from approximately 3years to 70 years old. I went upstairs to the service because that was the location of the temple. On this Sunday, the people had attended the service for prayer. On the way they pray, before we entered the temple, the people should put something yellow on their forehead and wipe their heads a little of

Analysis and comparison of the presentation of the prologue Essay Example for Free

Analysis and comparison of the presentation of the prologue Essay The prologue is the introduction, which gives an overview of the play. It tells us what happens at the end of the play, in this case in Romeo and Juliet it is told in the introduction, for example the lines, a pair of star-crossd lovers take their life, doth with their death bury their parents strife. These two lines say that Romeo and Juliet both deep in love with each other, die at the end of the play, the reason being that their parents hated each other. It also sets the scene of Fair Verona and it explains the contents of the play, Two households, and break to new mutiny. The prologue is said by the chorus. This means it is an idea of a group of people taken from ancient Greek tradition. The prologue does not introduce the audience to the characters in the play; it just talks briefly about the events within the play. A prologue at the beginning of a play is a style commonly used by Shakespeare to open up a play. It is also common that Shakespeare uses the use of a sonnet to produce the prologues. A sonnet always has fourteen lines in total. It is a very precise piece of poetry. The rhyme scheme is very tight and controlled- a,b,a,b,c,d,c,d,e,f,e,f,g,g. They consist of three quatrains with a final rhyming couplet. It is very controlled, yet very subtle. You would tend to notice the story telling first and then later realise that it is a poem with rhythm. There are ten syllables in each line, a pattern of stressed and unstressed syllables. It is self consciously dramatic. It emphasises its purpose in telling the story, Is now the two hours traffic of our stage. It directly tells the audience to pay attention, The which if you with patient ears attend, what here shall miss, our toil shall strive to mend, and the play will develop from what the prologue has been revealing. In Franco Zefirellis production of Romeo and Juliet, the prologue is very brief and short. The film starts off with the details, the opening credits. The font to the credits is in white and in a quite gothic style of writing making it fit in with the traditional theme. While the details are slowly appearing on the screen, around the screen there is a thin border of orange geometric shapes on a yellow background. As the border is so bright and colourful, it is able to immediately catch the audiences eyes and therefore grabs their attention. The border suggests a very sixties styles. You would probably expect a more formal, dark edged kind of border. A soft and slow melody played on a harpsichord plays quietly in the background. The effect that Zefirelli tries to create here is to create a nice calm beginning to the play. In shot one, you can see the camera panning over the city of Fair Verona and slightly out of focus. The light is blue and hazy, gradually brightening up as the camera pans, suggesting that it is dawn. The colour of the light in the sky shining over the city, creates a dreamy and peaceful effect, and adds to the beauty of the city that is being shown. You could only just make out the tops of tall buildings and churches at first, but as it gradually gets lighter, the buildings and other features become more into focus. The rooftops of houses, church spires and a river are seen clearly. You are able to feel the quietness of the city in the early morning, which again gives the effect of the city being very calm and peaceful. The camera pans round the whole city, and then moves up towards the sun and stop with the sun being directly in the middle of the screen shot. The sun suggests the hot foreign climate of a hot foreign country, such as Italy. Shakespeares name appears when the camera has stop panning and focused on the sun. All of this equals one continuos shot. The panning is slow, and the brightening of the day is slow, creating a slow pace to the shot. It gives me the impression of a slow climax to the prologue, getting more and more intense as it goes along, and stopping at the sun gives me the impression that it represents the end, with an either tragic end or a very happy end. I think that it is trying to relate to the whole play itself, with the gradual climax with an intense ending. Throughout shot one, the speaker slowly recites the prologue in a poetic style. He speaks slowly going with the steady flow of the slow motion of the panning of the camera, so that it would not effect the backgrounds creation of peace. The speaker of the prologue is a man whose voice is gentle, soothing and rhythmic as he echoes the prologue. He still speaks when going into the second shot. Shot two is of a medieval courtyard. In front of the courtyard there is the city wall with battlements made of stone and brick, which gives the impression of the setting being in the medieval times. The camera stops moving and shows the shot of the courtyard while the speaker finishes reciting the prologue. As he completes his speech of the prologue, the camera moves slightly round to the left, which shows that where the camera is next to the city wall, it is also one of the ends of a busy marketplace. The suns golden bright morning light shines over the city wall and through the street of the marketplace, representing that it is the start of a new day. The sound of the hustle and bustle of a busy marketplace gradually builds up and the first act of the first scene begins there. This effect is to bring in the play with a more calm start and not rushing into the play with a different shot, bringing the audience into a slow and calm beginning. Zefirelli does not create any huge special effects. The title of the play, Romeo and Juliet appears as the speaker says the words star-crossed lovers. Zefirellis purpose of having the title and the words star-crossed lovers coming up at the same time, is to reinforce visually and aurally the main point of the play that it is a tragic story about the lovers Romeo and Juliet. Baz Luhrmanns version of the prologue is done in much more detail and is emphasised a huge amount more. Luhrmann tries to grab the attention of the audience with very fast moving screen shots and very lively music. The first shot that comes up on the screen is of a TV with a blank screen, and the distance between the camera and the TV is very far, making the TV look very small in the distance. The first sound is the fuzziness of a TV, and then on the screen of the TV, the opening credits are displayed on white tiles with a black background. The contrast between the colours gives a very sharp effect. This gives a very different first effect on the audience compared to Zefirellis opening shot. Luhrmanns first shot of the bold white tiles with a black background, gets the audiences attention straight away. After the credits, a female newsreader appears on the TV screen, and she reads aloud the prologue. She says the prologue like reading aloud a news report rather than in a poetic sonnet way. This makes the prologue subtle and it makes the audience think twice before realising that it is the prologue that she is saying. The subtle speaking of the prologue differs with Zefirellis make of the prologue being obvious to opening up the film. Beside the newsreader in the background, there is a small picture with some text underneath it. As the camera is in the far distance, it makes it hard to see what the picture and text are, which makes the audience wonder what it is. While the newsreader is saying the prologue, the camera subtly zooms in directly towards the screen, and the picture in the corner gradually comes into focus. The picture is of a broken ring with the text underneath it saying Star crossd lovers. The symbolism of the broken ring is that the lovers end up being torn away from each other. After the newsreader says the twelfth line of the prologue, the camera suddenly picks up speeds and zooms right into the TV screen, through a high street. At the same time the words, Fair Verona constantly flashes up in white with a black background. From the zooming, it has merged from one background into another. This sudden pick up of speed would as if wake up the audience and shocking them as the screen had suddenly gone from one shot to another. This is very unlike Zefirellis presentation of the prologue, as he keeps his prologue simple and calm all the way through, whereas Luhrmann uses the effect of zooming and flashing words up creating a dramatic scene. The reason of flashing the words, Fair Verona while the camera rushes down the high street, is to make the audience understand the comparison and realise exactly how fair Verona really is in his version of the film. It shows a decaying urban landscape contradicting fair Verona. The font style of the writing is bold like Arial, and is in block capitals, making it clear to the audience what it says. In Zefirellis, as the camera pans over the city, you can see that Verona is very pretty and fair, as the prologue says it is. As the camera reaches the end of the street, the camera is suddenly focused on the face of a statue, which was far in the distance from where the zooming into the street began. Very dramatic music starts to be played loudly, which produces a bigger effect on grabbing the audiences attention. The camera then pulls back to view the tops of two corporate buildings with the statue in the middle. The buildings have big signs on the top of them. They are the names of the two households, Capulet and Montague. They are in different colours, Capulet in red and Montague in blue. The differences in the colours emphasise the difference between the two. The effect of having the statue splitting the two buildings up is to make the point clear, that the two households need something or someone to keep them apart to avoid causing major trouble in the city, as they absolutely despise each other. The statue shown actually represents Jesus Christ. It is Jesus Christ who is trying to control the families and bringing some peace to the city. In Zefirellis version, the point that the two families cannot stand each other is not emphasised. As the prologue is said in the same tone and way all the way through and the pictures are just of how fair Verona is, does not give a definite and clear point that the two households are major enemies. Luhrmann makes it visual to the audience, the hate between the two families. The next part of the introduction to Luhrmanns production of Romeo and Juliet, is of a rapid chain of clips from one to the other including clips of police cars with VBPD on the side of them standing for Verona Beach Police Department. This is shown to tell the audience that this is Verona Beach and not fair Verona. The chain of clips also includes clips of helicopters, clips of the disaster from different viewpoints, some far up in the sky, some close up to casualties who were injured, and the damage done to the city by this one disaster brought up because of the hate between the Capulets and the Montagues. The disaster is emphasised in this rapid succession of clips, to stress how much damage can be caused by one incident done by the two families. It also makes the audience think and imagine if this one incident caused so much damage, the amount of damage that they probably had done to the city in the past and what would be done in the future. The prologue is said once again while another variety of images using other media of newspaper articles and magazine covers appear. This time, the prologue is said by a character whom is actually in the play, referring to how the prologue is traditionally said by the chorus. The character who speaks the prologue is Friar Lawrence, and he says it in a poetic way, and this time the rhythm of a sonnet is emphasised. A man with a soft, gentle and low voice speaks the prologue like it is in Zefirellis production. This is one similarity that the two productions have. As he speaks, some words of the prologue is emphasised by magazine headlines appearing, using the effect of spinning one on top of the other. The headlines include New Mutiny and Civil Blood Makes Civil Hands Unclean. These headlines are to tell the audience and remind them the symbolism and reasoning behind each word in the prologue. There is also a faint background of burning flames when these headlines appearing as if showing the damage done. The images however, some are of like modern day newspapers and magazines. The camera slowly pans through a rack of different covers, and the headline of each newspaper and magazine are all referring to the feud caused between the two households, emphasising that they produce big issues in the city. Other images in this group of images include police taking charge of the situation in a live kind of view, showing how fast the police and other services had to respond to reduce the risk of more damage happening. The police and fire departments had to work into the night with the clearing up of the situation. This is known as the images are taken from broad daylight into the dark night. These images give the audience a visual understanding of how bad it is of the two households hating each other, which can cause so many innocent people in the city to be harmed. As the speaking of the prologue comes to an end, with the two lines A pair of star crossd lovers, take their life with the lines shown in white writing on a black background. This effect by now would be recognised by the audience by now as it had been used before to state the words Fair Verona. This effect of repeating jogs the audiences memories reminding them again and again the importance of the lines in the prologue. As the prologue stops being spoken, the same dramatic music becomes loud again. Each of the main characters are shown one by one with a pause on each with the text describing who each of the characters are and how they are either related to Romeo or Juliet or what the purpose of the character is in the film. This presentation of the character echoes the style of how it was done in famous program called Dallas. In Zefirellis version, the characters were not introduced and the film got right into the first scene once the prologue was spoken. A shot of Romeo looking through the narrow gap of a door appears, and then the camera immediately changes its angle to show what he see, which is a church aisle with blue neon crosses and candles. The angles that these two shots were taken were both through a narrow opening of the door. The first shot was taken from the inside of the church looking at Romeo, the man standing outside the door, and the second shot was taken from the outside of the door looking into the church. It emphasises what Romeo had seen, which the audience can assume is Juliet lying on the alter at the end of the aisle, Romeo thinking that she had really died. It also symbolises with that it was the conclusion and the end, viewing Romeo and the crosses, show that they were linked together and producing the idea of death. There was one more series of fast moving clips and a rush of lines as a final wind up to the prologue. There are a variety of different clips of things that happen from the beginning of the play to the end. The repeating of the clips again and again produce permanent images into the minds of the audience. The prologue ends with the words take their life and move onto the first act. The words take their life are stated to tell the audience that the story line would conclude with something relevant to it. I think that it is a new technique Luhrmann has used. He uses the technique of grabbing the attention of the audience and makes them concentrate. The prologue being reinforced by being presented for the third time, does not makes the audience get bored and tire of the clips being seen and seen again, but make them more excited about the film. I think that both Zefirelli and Luhrmann were trying to represent Romeo and Juliet in a different way, with different techniques. The prologue was of course interpreted differently. Zefirelli presented the prologue in his production in a gentle and calm way all the way through giving the audience a good idea of the peace and beauty of Verona. Luhrmann of course presented the prologue in a different way, almost a complete contrast to what Zefirelli did. He changed Fair Verona into urban sprawled Verona. I think that the presentations of the prologue were both appropriate for their interpretations because Zefirelli wanted to keep his production of Romeo and Juliet original and alike Shakespeare. Luhrmann wanted to interpret the play into something slightly more modern and unlike Shakespeares original version. In Luhrmanns production he emphasised the complications between the two households and the alterations he had made to the film, like how he set his production in an urban city and called it Verona Beach instead of setting it in the original city of Verona in Italy.

Models of Inclusion in Education

Models of Inclusion in Education Introduction This paper focuses upon inclusion as an international issue. It is structured in three basic topics. Firstly, there is a description of models of inclusion mainly implemented in the U.S.A. Then, there are presented the barriers for greater inclusiveness with some examples of schools from New Zealand, from the States and Northern Ireland. Finally, there are described some solutions, proposed by recent literature, aiming to overcome the barriers and achieve education for all. Main Body Defining Inclusion Searching through the literature, numerous authors describe the term inclusion via different definitions. This explains the various ways inclusion can be seen. A large amount of information has been provided through definitions for its purpose, its philosophy, its emergence as a rights issue as well as a social one. In this paper, inclusion will be examined as an educational issue and the terms inclusive school, inclusive system, inclusive education are used alternatively. As such an issue, it could be claimed that inclusion is about a philosophy of acceptance; it is about providing a framework within which all children- regardless of ability, gender, language, ethnic or cultural origin- can be valued equally, treated with respect and provided with equal opportunities at school (Thomas, Walker and Webb, 1998 :15). Inclusive education stands for an educational system that includes a large diversity of pupils and which differentiates education for this diversity (Pijl, Meijer, Hegarty, 1997: 1). Inclusive education is an unabashed announcement, a public and political declaration and celebration of differenceIt requires continual proactive responsitiveness to foster an inclusive educational culture (Corbett and Slee, 2000: 134). Inclusive schools are defined as those that admit high proportions of pupils with SEN (Dyson et al.2004: 10). The definitions above are just a small sample of the different approaches to inclusion estimated as an educational aspec t. Models of inclusion Changing a school into a more inclusive one is not an easy case. It constitutes a whole reform in order to have a lasting meaning for everyone engaged. This reform has been presented through some models of inclusion, which do not appear as panacea. They do have both advantages and disadvantages but tend to lead to a more reconstructed education. We could categorize these models to the ones promoting part-inclusion and the ones promoting full-inclusion. I will describe below models from both categories, which have been implemented in schools in the U.S.A. According to Zigmond and Baker (1997), self-contained classes and resource rooms in regular schools constitute models of part-inclusion. The first one depicts mainly a tendency for integration that has to do with the placement of children with SEN. The perception that they are in need of a different curriculum from their peers restricts their participation only to lesser activities. The teacher of the regular class needs a professionals guidance but the model still seems to be ineffective due to the low expectations the teacher has from pupils with special educational needs. The second one detaches from the regular classroom the children who need support in order to receive it from a special education teacher, who will teach them on obtaining basic academic skills or also on acquiring learning strategies. The results are dual because on the one hand the students self-esteem tends to follow an upward trend but on the other hand (s)he not only misses the opportunity to attend what the rest of the class is being taught during his/her absence but also there is incompatibility between the methods followed in the two classrooms. Having as a target to incorporate both special education and the pupils to whom it refers in the mainstream school, the two authors above suggest two full inclusive models: the Collaborative Teaching Model (CTM) and the MELD one (Zigmond and Baker 1997). In the classroom where the CTM model takes place, there is collaborative spirit between the teacher of general and special education. Through their daily contact they decide who will teach what, they teach together and they both aid all the pupils. As a result, the teaching procedure becomes more productive due to the fact that each teacher is responsible for a smaller number of children. Apart from this, a classmates support is also available to the child with SEN through the study- buddy system. As far as the MELD model is concerned, it is a broad reform as it engages the whole school in the inclusion effort. It encourages all children with learning difficulties to attend the general school no matter their performance. The special education teacher has a peripatetic role but the time he will spend in a class depends on the number of children with learning difficulties. There are weekly co-planning meetings but the disadvantage of the model is that the special education teacher has so many duties that (s)he has no much time left to pay the essential attention to pupils who really strive to attend the mainstream school. That is why their parents have to pay for extra tutorials or to choose another school environment for their child. Montgomery (1996) describes six of the several full inclusive models that can be implemented in a classroom framework. The first one reconstructs the traditional tension according to which interdisciplinary support was given in a separate class. Now all this personnel is an integral part of the class but can still offer more individual assistance when needed. The second one is a collaboration of coexistence of a general education class with a special education one of the same age. When that happens, two or more teachers share their experience and skills, one around curriculum and the other around support and vice versa so co-teaching becomes a fruitful process. The third full inclusive model encourages liaison mainly among general education teachers. There can be in a class a variety of special education needs, so the teacher can receive help from the rest of the staff teaching the same grade. Moreover, there is a timetable designed by paraprofessionals, who itinerate is it mostly needed. So, the last ones do not need to be there in a continuous basis but instead cooperation among teachers and group teaching can be a really helpful combination. Consistency is the key in this group. That means that when children move to next grade, it is essential the same function to be adopted so as to assure that there will be an alignment in the teaching method. The fourth model refers to older children especially ones of secondary education. Compared to the rest of the children, pupils with SEN have the opportunity of making three choices instead of two. So, apart from core and elective modules they can also attend support centre. The aim of this model is equal support to be offered both during core and elective modules and not let a child restricted in the resource room with just some visits to the regular one. To continue with the fifth model, there is a student support centre in the school, the scientific team of which not only offers support on an individual basis but also collaborates with teachers of regular class. This model offers extended contact between special educators and children as support is not only provided in the centre but also in the class or on a group basis but the criteria for success for success is trust among personnel members as each child is not one professionals duty but a whole teams responsibility. The last model according to Montgomery (1996) refers to adolescents with special educational needs who will attend for four years courses in a campus with students without special needs. There are meetings offering advice and guidance to general educators while the special ones remain close to the child by providing support for developing skills to achieve better contact with peers and participation to extracurricular activities. The key to success is the heads assistance. Barriers that prevent schools from promoting greater inclusiveness By proclaiming that every child has unique characteristics, interests, abilities and learning needs and that education systems should be designed and educational programs implemented to take into account the wide diversity of these characteristics and needs ( UNESCO,1994, p.p. viii) it is represented a tendency for promoting inclusion. Not only international declarations but also government documents and educational acts elucidate the multilevel importance of inclusive practices. To support this, emphasis is given on h3 educational, social and moral grounds (Tilstone, Florian and Rose 1998, p.2) of inclusion through the issue of equal opportunities and human rights one. The values of acceptance and limitation of discrimination of disabled people have given rise to the debate around their belonging in ordinary environments, and more specifically, for the case examined here, in an ordinary school. Despite the dialogue among governments, ministries of education, organizations, legislations, educators, (SENCOs), parents, specialists there still remains a significant gap between theory and practice. Prohibiting factors are social as well as practical aspects. When examining the barriers for promoting inclusion and more specifically within a social context, one should take into consideration the medical model and the individuals perceptions, which come as its consequences. In order to understand the impact of medical model on exclusionary discourses, it is of essential importance to think about the progress of medicine during the past century. The fact that a doctor has the ability and the privilege to diagnose, prescribe, cure and rehabilitate raises him in the sphere of authority. Vlachou (1997) states that the medical model is extremely dominant and it demonstrates its strength through labeling and its policy around disability. The medical ideology boosts its prestige through its success to penetrate in the social system and leaves people no opportunity for questions but instead it accepts the professionals judgments as they are. Moreover, it uses the principle of normalization in an ambiguous way. On the one hand, the use of normalization is similar to cure but a disability cannot be treated. A child with Autistic Spectrum cannot overcome it and become some day an adolescent or an adult without Autism. On the other hand, medical model tries to use normalization alternatively to equal treatment forgetting that equal: does not always mean same. (Vlachou 1997). Direct effect of the model above is the creation of tensions of considering disabled people as heroes because they manage to live in such an inhospitable society despite their difficulties. This decreases their self-esteem and their self-image and may lead to internalized oppression. Furthermore, another consequence related to this is the establishment of perceptions of each individual about what is normal or abnormal, superior or inferior. This has mainly been affected by socially constructed norms and values dealing with appearance but undoubtedly family plays a major role. Different ideologies, ways of upbringing and environments have a different impact on each person. Within a school environment, there is another significant challenge. Labeling is a situation that both disabled people and the advocators of human rights ask to be demolished. Even if a student is has a formal diagnosis or not, his observable behavior could ridicule him in his peers eyes. As far as teachers are concerned, their attitudes can also be a barrier for managing inclusion. They usually expect less from the pupil; they underestimate his abilities so he has a tendency for underachievement. (Vlachou, 1997). Teachers duty is not only to teach the curriculum. They represent one of the most substantial and crucial factors and have a key role in the school reform and its change into a democratic one. What was described above is what literature characterizes as social barriers for achieving inclusion at schools. In other words, the medical model, its effects of heroic images and labeling, individual perceptions based on predominance of beauty and educators attitudes are the social struggles for inclusive education. Apart from the social barriers there are also some practical aspects which arise in daily practice and obstruct inclusion. Pauline Zelaieta (2004) conducted an investigation and found some difficulties faced by mainstream practitioners on the way to inclusion. Firstly, teachers of general education are afraid of lacking the expertise and confidence to work on issues relating to special educational needs. Secondly, teachers in general schools lack time. They have a strictly structured teaching in order to provide curriculum, so this pressure permits no flexibility of re-instructing the lecture in a more suitable and supporting way, which can appeal to every pupils differences and needs. Other inhibitive factors were found to be the lack of leadership, organizational difficulties and financial constraints (Zelaieta 2004: 43). A review of the relevant literature has revealed that there are many commonalities among the schools regarding their unsuccessful efforts of promoting inclusive education to all their children. Purdue, Ballard and MacArthur (2001) raise the issue of warrior parents through their research. As such, are defined those parents who make any endeavour to incorporate their children in a mainstream school but they run up against the exclusionary attitudes of the staff who see these children as different and as belonging elsewhere (Purdue, Ballard and MacArthur 2001: 40). Indicant of the excluding practices is the unwillingness of the school to accept a child with disability and other parents attitudes. The authors mention that the evidence they collected about what happens in New Zealand at both public and private pre-school level is disappointing especially for those parents whose only choice is a rural kindergarten. In some cases the heads of the centre claim that they are not obliged to take these children in the school. In some other cases children with special educational needs were accepted but under certain conditions or provided their parents presence. Furthermore, they describe how the centre can exert control over the childs attendance of the school. The staff will not welcome any child with disability unless he has his personal assistant teacher. In case the teacher aide is unable to go to school, the child has to stay at home. It is also argued the need for resources such as materials, supportive staff and measures for accommodating physical access. That is why many children are excluded either directly (by telling the parents that they cannot accept him in the school e nvironment) or indirectly from the school (by informing the parents that they are positive about him but there is lack of resources). The research criticized as additional exclusionary factors the teachers limited knowledge about disability and other parents not welcoming behavior. So, the importance of parents advocacy is very vividly highlighted in order to ensure that their child will receive the expected education like the rest of the same-aged ones. Very frequently parents need to advocate even for the most obvious services to be offered to their child. But on the other hand parents face the dilemma of how the teachers will treat their child if they will put a lot of pressure on them and be too strict with them. (Purdue, Ballard and MacArthur 2001). Moran and Abbott (2002) examined through their investigation how eleven schools develop inclusive practices in Northern Ireland. Their findings acknowledged the invaluable help of teacher assistants but a significant number of them had scrappy education and knowledge about how to work with children with special educational needs. Some other had no qualification. Instead, they had significant experience. As a result they needed to be retrained and this policy was followed by all the schools participated in the research. This happened either in the school context or with a distance learning program. Moving on with the aspects stated as barriers for inclusion through their research, low degree of team work can be mentioned as one. Assistants role was defined mainly by the heads through the things they should not do, such as avoid being overprotective or playing a discreet role during the breaks. The results of the investigation above are in accord with the findings of a research (Gibb et al. 2007) which showed that barrier factors in the inclusion practice seem to be among others the personnels lack of knowledge, childs limited social participation and academic ability as well. Teachers interviewed admitted firstly the short of knowledge about what kind of teaching strategies to implement on children with special educational needs and secondly the fact that they were not skillful enough to exploit their potential. It is reported that it is of great importance their needs to be met. That is why the authors highlighted the essentiality of partnership between mainstream and special schools. Collective work and giving feedback for improvement can diminish the barriers. The curriculum can also be an additional factor, which in practice resists inclusion. It would be a wrong judgment to assume that certain teaching methods are accessible only to children with specific abilities or needs. There are no strategies to use as panacea, but creativity is essentially useful to promote a curriculum that all students will benefit from it. It is crucial not to perceive curriculum as means of promoting knowledge but as a chance to interact with others (Thomas, Walker and Webb 1998). Armh3 (1999) indicates another dimension of curriculum. The one that it portrays what is accepted through social practices and through the philosophy of each module that is taught. The curriculum creates a cultural space which is obvious from the language used to teach a specific subject, from the books, from peoples appearance and this underestimates their identities. The development of creative pedagogies can control what is being taught and destroy the authority of norms and tensions, which some institutions and teachers impose. Black- Hawkins, Florian and Rouse (2007: 15) define inclusion as the process of increasing the numbers of students attending mainstream schools, who in the past would have been prevented from doing so because of their identified special educational needs. Basic assumption to promote inclusion in regular schools is the buildings and facilities suitability for children with disabilities. Even though unobstructed access to school is a precondition for the child to attend it, it is very frequently too far from reality and this is another barrier for promoting inclusion. First and foremost, it is important the school to be adapted to pupils needs and accommodate its routine and not vice versa. So, a school needs to have an a priori inclusive policy- to put it differently, school has to provide for children with disabilities since its construction. The inclusive philosophy of a school is clearly important to be obvious and substantial not only in the classrooms but in every facility of the school environment (Thomas, Walker and Webb 1998). Black- Hawkins, Florian and Rouse (2007) describe some schools efforts while trying to change their image into an inclusive one. Kingsley Primary School was the first case study to be examined. This school had approximately 650 children when visited by the authors above, but provided no full access to the total building for children with motor difficulties as there was no elevator. As far as Amadeus Primary School is regarded it had by 2005 411 pupils. Although it is a really attractive school with light classes and colourful walls, it does not offer access to children with physical disabilities. The third school was a secondary one called Harbour Community. 1,200 children was the total number of pupils in 2004. This school, as happened with the other ones before, could also not assure the accommodation of children with physical or hearing difficulties as there was no provision for them. The small size of the classrooms was a prohibitive factor for wheelchair users and the acoustics of rooms did not help in order to attend a suitable teaching within a welcoming environment. Finally, the last case examined was the Chester Community School, a secondary school as well. It had a population of 1,300 adolescents, of whom 5% were diagnosed as having special educational needs. Comparatively to the rest of the schools inspected, this was the most inclusive one, but although there is a general tendency for promoting inclusion it has restrictions as far as accessibility is concerned. Some parts of the building are open to access but the unaffordable cost for the renovation of the school remains the main barrier. Judging from the data collected from a small sample of buildings, we are able to conclude that four out of four schools are unable to implement inclusion (even up to a point) and this is a frustrating rate. It is easy to consider that no matter how inclusive services a school may offer, the first and foremost that has to provide is unimpeded access. (Thomas, Walker and Webb 1998). Inclusion is discussed and suggested in an extended degree through national and international documents, for instance the Salamanca Statement, the Framework for Action on Special Educational Needs, the Index for Inclusion. The obstacles that prevent it from being established in school environments need to be removed. To sum up what was described above, we can categorize the barriers referred in literature into social and practical issues. The medical model is mentioned as social because of its impacts on disabled peoples life. Not only this, but its consequences do also have a negative effect on them, owing to viewing them as heroes or as deviant. Finally, teachers opinion can also be an obstacle to promoting inclusive education. On the other hand, as practical difficulties we can characterize these ones, which rise in the daily routine. More specifically, general teachers perception of lacking knowledge about special education, lack of time to deliver the curriculum as well as the curriculum itself, restricted access to school buildings, limited team work on the part of teachers and unwillingness of some schools to accept disabled children are the practical aspects, which promote exclusionary instead of inclusionary philosophy and practice. Overcoming the barriers Solutions Moves towards inclusion involve abatement of the struggles for inclusion. Overcoming of the social barriers can be fulfilled if changing the societys function by letting disabled peoples voices to be heard. Another direction that can be taken is the one of intervening to the social field of school. A radical change of the general attitude of the school is indispensable and needs to take place. The school is useful to act as a collaborative community, which sets no restrictions to its members to be part of it. (Thomas, Walker and Webb 1998). Segregation based on the criterion of ability needs to be eliminated and this can happen through teachers and peers attitudinal change (Pijl, Meijer and Hegarty 1997). Inclusion can be developed within a framework of assistance and support on behalf of teachers. Students can deconstruct the philosophy of exclusion by working into small groups to do in-classroom activities or by peer- tutoring. Strategies like these ones or as circles of friends or buddy-systems (Thomas, Walker and Webb 1998) promote an accepting philosophy in the classroom context and help collaborate under the partnership spirit. These actions are not by themselves the direct solution to the problem of inclusion in school level. The dimension of cultural change is the basic one to be reformed. The Index for Inclusion, which is a material based on the 1989 United Nations Convention on the Rights of Child and UNESCOs 1994 Salamanca Statement and Framework for Action, specifies the dimension of creating inclusive cultures. This dimension is about creating a secure, accepting, collaborating, stimulating community in which everyone is valued, as the foundation for the highest achievements of all students. It is concerned with developing inclusive values, shared between all staff, students, governors and parents/ carers that are conveyed to all new members of the school (Booth et al. 2000: 45). As a result, new cultures affect society in general and school community in particular. In that way teachers are willing to design new teaching approaches so as to respect every pupils needs, differences and abilities and st udents are willing to respond to that pedagogy. This is the first step to move on providing solutions for the practical barriers which were analyzed before. Taking the attitudinal and cultural change for granted, this can positively affect alternative ways for the curriculum delivery. For instance, students arrangement into groups, use of innovative materials, brand-new lesson format and interesting tasks differentiated by activities can create an active learning environment. The achievement of goals can happen through supportive relationships and mixed groups in which ones abilities will accommodate others needs. Focus on the whole classroom instead of individuals separately can promote the delivery of an inclusive curriculum (Thomas, Walker and Webb 1998). If educators plan their teaching, if they offer group activities employing curricular differentiation and if there is mutual respect inclusion can undoubtedly be promoted. (Gibb et al.2007). Producing inclusive policies is a second dimension mentioned in the Index for Inclusion, which is about securing inclusion at the heart of school development, permeating all policies, so that they increase the learning and participation of all students. All forms of support are brought together within a single framework and are viewed from the perspective of students and their development rather than school or local education authority administrative structures (Booth et al. 2000: 45). A school for all is the one, which can firstly offer physical access to its pupils. Then, it supports them not only by making the use of buildings comfortable but also by offering psychological support. For instance, by aiding new students to adapt to the new environment or by representing their educational needs and create small peer-groups during teaching so that everyone can benefit from it. Inclusive policy supports diversity in multiple ways. That can happen by supporting activities for students w ith special needs or for those whose native language is not the same as the rest of the pupils. (Booth et al.2000). After examining the theoretical part of what is inclusive policy, it is essential to discuss how a sample of schools implements those policies. Kingsley Primary School had a high level (60%) of children for whom English was an additional language and about 15% of pupils with special needs. The school had a clearly admission policy and tried to respond to pupils needs. For that reason, the school had some facilities corrected and removed some of the barriers regarding participation and access. Implementing inclusive policy according to the Index, urged Kingsley School to support all children needed aid in learning. To do it successfully, they arranged some teaching groups. Gifted children, pupils with discipline problems or with problems on using the local language attended some lessons in separate classrooms and finally they had the ability to attend the curriculum in their class with their peers. (Black-Hawkins, Florian and Rouse 2007). Although the policy of Amadeus Primary School regarding accessibility is not that inclusive, the school provides low dado rails to support children with visual impairments and a hearing induction loop system (Black- Hawkins, Florian and Rouse 2007 :72). It embraces all new children and a peer mentor is responsible for each one of them especially for the first-day-difficulties. As far as children identified as having learning difficulties are concerned, their needs are met by planning their homework. The last dimension of inclusion explored by the Index is about developing inclusive practices and is defined as reflecting the inclusive cultures and policies of the school. It is concerned with ensuring that classroom and extra-curricular activities encourage the participation of all students and draw on their knowledge and experience outside school. Teaching and support are integrated together in the orchestration of learning and the overcoming of barriers to learning and participation. Staff mobilizes resources within the school and local communities to sustain active learning for all (Booth et al.2000: 45). So, barriers discussed above such as lack of time or lack of leadership and tem work can be removed. The Index for Inclusion suggests the creation of a coordinating group, the head of which will raise staffs knowledge about its purposes. Acting not as an expert but as a consultant s/he can collect information about staffs and parents opinion on what are the real priorities and aspects for change. After the collection of evidence, further discussion follows on arranging a development plan, which will be monitored via meetings, councils, debates. (Booth et al.2000). After that, everyones duties will be reassigned. The teacher will know what s/he has to do, the teacher assistant will have a clearer idea about his/ her role and his/her performance within the classroom, the SENCO, the planning team, the senior staff and the head teacher will be able to work in a new, much more organized and closely monitored context. In that way, lack of leadership and organization and lack of time stop acting restrictively against inclusion. Collaborative work is highly promoted in the framework of inclusive culture. Moving towards inclusive practice, team work acts as a basic assumption, not only among staff members but also among them and the parents/ carers. Good interaction of those involving in inclusion and respect to each others knowledge and experiences are the keys for their efficient partnership (Armh3 and Moore 2004). Lack of specialist knowledge was referred to a great extent as a prohibitive factor for inclusion. Liaison of special and general schools seems to be really effective. The first ones can train the general educators and provide them suitable material for using while teaching children with SEN. They can also equip them with strategies and ideas for adapting the curriculum to their diversities and the teaching time can be better administered (Cheminais 2003). Collaborative engagement, value others opinions, active listening and working with a plan in a monitored context, as proposed by the Index, can be the right solutions to the barriers for inclusion. In a school that finally decides to implement and promote inclusive practices there is an atmosphere of collaboration, students learn from each other, children support one another regardless of the group activities and they have attitudes of respect and acceptance. Children use their resources as well as staffs expertise to reinforce inclusion. (Booth et al.2000; Black-Hawkins, Florian and Rouse 2007). After having discussed the three dimensions for achieving inclusion (inclusive cultures, policies and practices), it is difficult to say which comes first. None of these separately can provide that high results as when co-existing and acting as one. To p

A Womans Role :: essays research papers

In every area of the world, women have always had a role to fill. It has varied through the years as cultures have changed, but they are always included in some way. Ancient China was no different. Women were thought of as unimportant, yet the Chinese couldn’t have prospered without them. Women should be given the same respect that is given a man. Ancient China was filled with superstition and undirected beliefs. It is as a result of this that women were treated poorly and unfairly. Women had very few rights, most of which were insignificant. They were not allowed to join the military to help fight for their country, they couldn’t give their opinion to a man, they couldn’t hold government positions, they couldn’t have a job other than housework, they couldn’t own property, and they couldn’t choose their husbands. Women were basically slaves. If a woman was caught impersonating a man, speaking out of turn, or not obeying her husband, she could be put to death. As far as the men were concerned, a woman’s purpose was to cook, clean, garden, and doing her part in carrying on the family name. Today in America, women are treated with respect and equality. It hasn’t always been this way, however, during our nations earlier years, a handful of people have changed laws pertaining to women’s rights. Because of this, every woman, without regard for age or race, can vote, hold a government office, speak publicly, make decisions for herself, and provide for herself by working outside of the home. Women utilize these rights so that they do not lose them and end up in the same boat that the ancient Chinese were in. Have you ever wondered what life would be like if today in America females were treated the same way women were treated in ancient China? Their workload would be much greater; instead of being able to have a job, they would be doing all of the physical labor around the house without the husbands help.

It’s Time to Include Gays and Lesbians in Our Study of Literature Essay

The growth of gay people as a group has been astonishing. It is not possible to guess how exactly we will grow from our experiences in the years ahead, but it is possible to predict that growth will continue, one way or another. A diverse and strong global community has been established.(Clark 60) Dr. Don Clark, clinical psychologist and university professor, boldly expresses his views on the changing nature of the gay and lesbian community in his text, Loving Someone Gay. Clark describes how far gay people have advanced in the last thirty years, moving from isolated and fearful existences to lives marked by political power and potential. Indeed, the gay community, and lesbians in particular, have transformed into large and respected forces in American culture. As with any societal group, their cultural contributions have continued to expand and develop along with their newly acquired political finesse, giving the gay community a sense of pride in its artistic and literary achievements. Since education is a primary source of transferring cultural understanding and awareness, it is essential that educational institutions respect the achievements of this newly empowered community in the selection of relevant curriculum. But they must also be careful; while many texts offer a rep resentative portrayal of the gay community, there are others which reveal a more narrow view. For example, in 1973, author Rita Mae Brown published a shocking exploration of one girl’s growing up lesbian in America. Creating images of rape, incest, and promiscuity, Brown portrayed a cold, angry character willing to blame her sexual identity on a dysfunctional family and an unyielding educational system. While uniquely American in both its authorship and... ...EBSCOhost. Glenbrook North H.S. Lib., Northbrook, IL. 8 Apr. 2002 . Randolf, E. â€Å"Women and Other Women.† Art Journal Sum. 1991: 29-34. MasterFILE Elite. EBSCOhost. Glenbrook North H.S. Lib., Northbrook, IL. 8 Apr. 2002 . Roberts, Edgar V., and Henry E. Jacobs. Literature—An Introduction to Reading and Writing. New Jersey: Prentice, 2001. Ruoff, A. Lavonne Brown, and Jerry W. Ward, Jr. Redefining American Literary History. New York: MLA, 1990. Worth, Chrissie. â€Å"Rita Mae Brown verifies outspoken attitude during Oxford visit.† The Daily Mississipian 23 Apr. 1996. 1 Apr. 2002 . Zacks, Rebecca. â€Å"LeVay Shares Thoughts on ‘Gay Gene’ Research.† Scientific American 7 June 1996. 3 Apr. 2002 .

Freedom within a Panoptical Society Essay

The concepts â€Å"moderm† and â€Å"post-modern† have become common currency in intellectual debates. Within such debates, the postmodern is perceived as an epoch, a perspective, or an entirely new paradigm of thought. Such a conception of the aforementioned term stems from its rootedness in the conception of the modern. Chia notes that what distinguishes the postmodern from the modem is â€Å"a style of thinking which eschews the uncritical use of common terms such as ‘organizations’, ‘individuals’, ‘environment’, ‘structure’, and ’culture’, etc† (579). These terms refer to the existence of social entities and attributes within a modernist conception of social reality. The rationale behind this lies in the ontological conception of being which privileges thinking in terms of discrete phenomenal states, static attribute and sequential events. As opposed to such an ontological conception of reality, the postmodern stands as the champion of weak forms of ontology that â€Å"emphasize a transient, ephemeral and emergent reality† (Chia 579). If such is the case, it thereby follows that a postmodernist perspective of reality adheres to thought styles wherein reality is deemed to be continuously in flux and transformation and hence unrepresentable thereby impossible to situate within a static conception of reality. An adoption of a post-modernist perspective of reality thereby leads to a rethinking of the modern conceptions of social reality since adherence to postmodernist perspectives lead to the de-emphasis on forms and attributes. Such a conception of reality however tends to emphasize the importance of local methods, which collectively define social reality. In a sense, the shift from a modern to a postmodern conception of reality thereby leads to the re-definition of existing ontological conceptions of reality that determine the various forms of intellectual priorities as well as theoretical stipulations in the study and conception of being. Such a perception of reality [that is highly characterized by the postmodern turn] is evident in Michel Foucault’ perspectives as to the workings of social reality. Michel Foucault’s use of Jeremy Bentham’s concept â€Å"panopticon’ in his book Discipline and Punish presents a discussion of the aspect of surveillance while placing emphasis on a fundamental change and break resulting from the changes in the social and theatrical arrangements during the 1800’s. The difference in methodology is evident if one considers that as opposed to the old methodology wherein the many see the few, modern methodology has enabled the shift wherein the few see the many. Foucault notes that such a shift shows the manner in which â€Å"the instantaneous view of a great multitude† is procured for a small number of individuals or even for a single individual (216). He further notes that the implications of such show the manner in which Our society is one not of spectacle, but of surveillance†¦We are much less Greek than we believe. We are neither in the amphitheater, nor on the stage, but in the panoptical machine, invested by its effects of power which we bring to ourselves since we are a part of its mechanism. (Foucault 217) Such a perspective is based on the assumption that society stands as the locus for the interplay of various forms of power relations. Such forms of power relation determine the manner in which an individual situates himself/herself within his/her surroundings. Surveillance, in this sense, may be seen as a method which society inscribes upon an individual as he/she chooses to regulate his/her actions dependent upon the form of power relation in which he/she has direct access. It is important to note, that Foucault’s notion of panopticonism also emphasizes the existence of freedom within a predefined space. Understanding power is central to understanding Foucault’s analysis of subjectivity. Foucault explicitly rejects the paradigm of power as repression, arguing that power is not only negative but also productive. He rejects the juridical model of power, wherein power is characterized as repressive, rule-based, uniform, and prohibitive. According to this model, the subject is constituted as one who obeys this negative unilateral power. Foucault characterizes power as positive and productive. Power is everywhere, a multiplicity of force relations; it is always local and unstable. This ubiquity of power does not preclude resistance. On the contrary, resistance(s) can only exist in the strategic field of power relations. Power is action that runs through and between things; power is first and foremost relational. Not only is power always a relationship, but power relationships exist everywhere. Freedom, in this sense, is to be understood as composed of positive and negative aspects. Although one exists within panoptical society, it is possible to engage in cases of positive freedom through the engagement of actions, which contradicts the dominant discourses. In the popular feminist movements, for example, such an act involves the redefinition of the feminine as opposed to the presumed patriarchal conception of the female. Such is the manner in which Foucault’s philosophy emphasizes the fluidity of structures despite its existence within a panoptical realm. The way in which our current society is controlled and determined by the panoptical gaze can also be seen in the various ways in which media affects the viewpoint held by an individual. Capitalism, through media and advertising commodifies values such as individuality. By linking the false notion of individuality to a certain commodity, consumers think that they are unique, that they are different. A deeper analysis however reveals that the aforementioned claim to individuality is nothing but an illusion; a figment of the mind manufactured and institutionalized by capitalists. It is not only the case that it is manufactured and institutionalized; it is also sold to the consumers. This leads to the deception of the masses who believes that they possess individuality whereas they fail to see that this individuality is instilled and mass produced by the market. The paradox in this is evident if one considers that values such as individuality are acquired by individuals through the consumption of goods sold in the market. In this sense, failure to consume such goods leads to a certain form of exclusion within society. In order to ‘belong’, one thereby adheres to the fads. The necessity to be an ‘individual’ [unique] is thereby ensured by society’s panoptical gaze. The manner in which the market prescribes and sells individuality [or any other value within society] was discussed by Susan Bordo in her essay â€Å"Beauty (Re) discovers the Male Body†. In the aforementioned text, Bordo describes a certain type of â€Å"gaze† which ensures the control of the body. As Foucault states, an inspecting gaze will ensure that each individual will exercise surveillance over himself. The gaze, in the context of Bordo’s work is centered on the body. The manner in which such a manner of self-surveillance is ensured is through the acculturation of the individual himself. In Ways of Seeing, John Berger discusses the ways in which the process of acculturation or the socialization process itself enables the individual to develop a certain taste for the ‘beautiful’. Berger argues that society and culture prescribe and determine both the normative and substantive taste of an individual. Compared to Bordo, whose focus is on the body, Berger focuses on the manner in which works of art are dictated by the modes f production within a specific place. True enough it is also dubious if an individual is capable of perceiving an object without interest whatsoever. We choose what we want to perceive and even if we state that there are instances wherein we are â€Å"captured† by a beautiful object, it gains our attention only because it is something which is important to us. In a room filled with people for example, we notice a specific person because that person has value to us. The platter of fruits does not become pleasing to eye simply because it is arranged in a certain manner which allowed us to see their symmetry with each other and the brightness of their skins, we also find it beautiful because somehow subconsciously we know that it is an important object or if it is a painting of a platter of fruits, it presents us with an image of objects which give us sustenance. In this sense it also seems that judgments of taste are also partly ruled by reason just like the sublime. Reason tells us that there is a level of significance to these objects. Works of art present us with ways of seeing reality. These ways are affected, influenced, or shall we just say dictated by the type of discourse which is prevalent in a specific society or even in a specific era. It is the importance of an object which allows us to subconsciously or even consciously associate beauty with these objects. The similarity of Foucault, Bordo, and Berger’s work may thereby be attributed to the importance they give to culture in determining the self as well as the restrictions of this self. Within such a setting, individual freedom may be seen as being dependent an individual’s capability to recognize the sources of both positive and negative power. In other words, it lies in the individual’s capability to realize that within a society ruled by a panoptical gaze, it is still possible to ascertain one’s autonomy by engaging in actions [or constituting a self] that goes against dominant the discourse. Works Cited Berger, John. Ways of Seeing. New York: Viking Press, 1973. Bordo, Susan. â€Å"Beauty (Re) discovers the Male Body†. Chia, R. â€Å"From Modern to Postmodern Organizational Analysis†. Organizational Studies 16 (1995): 579-604. Foucault, M. Discipline and Punish The Birth of the Prison. New York: Vintage, 1974.